Week 10: Influencers, Video Games, International Advertising and Ethics

Week 10 covers newer and special topics in advertising and IMC. It starts with influencer marketing: influencer types by follower size, why influencer content persuades (source credibility, homophily, parasocial relationships, authenticity), the influencer and follower relation, platform and context effects, sponsorship disclosure and persuasion knowledge, risks, momfluencers who feature their children, and virtual influencers, followed by word of mouth and buzz marketing. It then covers advertising in video games, international advertising (standardization versus adaptation, Hofstede, high and low context cultures), the ethics and regulation of advertising with a focus on the EU, and ethics and responsibility in digital systems.

1. Influencer marketing

A social media influencer has built a following on platforms such as Instagram, TikTok, YouTube or Twitch through content about a topic or lifestyle. Unlike a traditional celebrity endorser, the influencer's status is created on social media itself. Earlier chapters treated the celebrity or typical user as a positioning option and the spokesperson as an execution style; influencer marketing is the social media version of these ideas, with a more personal and interactive relation to the audience. It gives brands access to hard-to-reach groups (for example young people who avoid traditional media) with content that feels like a recommendation rather than an ad.

Types of influencers by follower size

Influencers are usually grouped by the size of their audience. The thresholds below are commonly used in practice, but they vary between sources and platforms, so treat them as indications rather than fixed rules.

The general trade-off is reach versus closeness: as follower numbers rise, reach grows but the follower's sense of a personal relation and the perceived authenticity of the recommendation tend to decline. Brands therefore often combine one large influencer for awareness with many micro and nano influencers for credibility and engagement.

Why influencer marketing works

• Source credibility. Sources are judged on expertise (does the source know the subject?) and trustworthiness (is it honest and unbiased?), often complemented by attractiveness. The judgment "brand credibility" in Keller's CBBE pyramid (Week 7 (brand equity and broadcast media)) uses the same building blocks. A creator who has posted about fitness for years is seen as an expert in sports nutrition.
• Homophily. People are more easily persuaded by sources they perceive as similar to themselves in values, background, lifestyle or appearance. Many influencers, especially micro and nano influencers, are seen as "people like me", which makes their recommendations feel relevant and achievable.
• Parasocial relationships. Followers who see an influencer every day, in their home, kitchen or gym, can develop a one-sided feeling of friendship and intimacy. The influencer does not know the follower personally, but the follower feels that they do know the influencer. A recommendation then feels like advice from a friend.
• Authenticity. Influencer content is valued because it seems genuine, personal and spontaneous rather than scripted. Followers reward content that fits the influencer's own style and interests and punish content that looks like a paid script.

The influencer and follower relation

The influencer and follower relation is the core asset in influencer marketing. It is built over time through regular content, interaction (comments, replies, live streams) and self-disclosure about private life. The stronger it is, the more the endorsement transfers to the brand. But it is fragile: if followers feel the influencer "sells out" by promoting too many or unfitting products, trust falls. Brands should therefore pick influencers whose audience matches the target group, allow creative freedom and prefer long-term partnerships over one-off posts.

A related concept is influencer and brand fit (also called congruence): the degree to which the influencer's image, expertise and audience match the brand. Good fit strengthens credibility; poor fit (a misfit) makes the collaboration look purely commercial.

Platform and context effects

The same message may work differently depending on where it is seen. Platforms differ in format (short vertical video on TikTok and Reels, long video on YouTube, live streaming on Twitch), in the algorithm that decides who sees content, and in user norms and mindset (entertainment, inspiration, information). Short video favours fast, trend-based content; long video allows detailed reviews that build expertise. The surrounding content and whether the user follows the influencer or meets the post in an algorithmic feed also shape attention, so content should be adapted per platform.

Sponsorship disclosure and persuasion knowledge

Because influencer advertising blends into normal content, regulators and codes require clear disclosure of paid collaborations (labels such as "ad" or "paid partnership", or the platform's branded content tool).

The Persuasion Knowledge Model (Friestad and Wright) explains why this matters. A sponsorship disclosure helps consumers recognise content as advertising, which activates their persuasion knowledge and can make them more sceptical. Open disclosure can, however, also increase the perceived honesty of the influencer, so the effect on trust is not always negative. Ethically and legally, disclosure is required regardless: it must be clear, placed where it is noticed (not hidden among hashtags) and understandable for the audience.

Risks of influencer marketing

• Fake followers and fake engagement. Some accounts buy followers, likes or comments, or use bots and engagement groups, so that reach and engagement look higher than they are. Brands should check audience quality (growth patterns, engagement rate, comment quality, audience location) before paying.
• Brand safety. The brand becomes associated with everything the influencer says and does. Controversial statements, scandals or inappropriate content can damage the brand by association.
• Misfit. A poor match between influencer and brand reduces credibility and can be seen as "selling out".
• Loss of control and overexposure. The influencer creates the content, and influencers who promote many brands lose credibility.
• Legal risk. If a paid collaboration is not disclosed, both influencer and brand can face complaints or sanctions.
• Measurement difficulty. Likes and views do not equal sales; use tracked links, discount codes and brand lift studies (Week 8).

Momfluencers and featuring children

Momfluencers are mothers who share content about parenting and family life and use this platform for brand collaborations, often portraying their own children. This raises ethical questions: children cannot meaningfully consent to having their image and private life shared and used commercially, and the content remains online as they grow up. The debate concerns privacy, commercial exploitation of children and whether children in sponsored content deserve protection similar to child actors.

The further reading by Van den Abeele, Beuckels, Hudders and Vanwesenbeeck (2025), "Cute but concerning", investigates the impact of portraying children in momfluencer content on engagement, advertising value and advertising effectiveness. The title signals the tension between appeal and concern. For brands, the question is whether a possible commercial benefit justifies featuring children, and how to work with parent influencers responsibly (for example by not requiring children in content).

Virtual influencers

Virtual influencers are computer-generated characters with a personality and social media presence, managed by a company or studio, that collaborate with brands like human influencers. Brands get full control, no risk of personal scandals and a character designed to fit the brand. Drawbacks are lower perceived authenticity, transparency issues (followers may not realise the character is not real) and the promotion of unrealistic beauty standards. Generative AI makes such characters easier to create, linking this topic to Week 9 and to AI transparency below.

2. Word of mouth and buzz marketing

Influencer marketing is closely related to word of mouth (WOM): informal communication between consumers about brands, which persuades because it seems independent of the company. Online it becomes electronic word of mouth (eWOM): reviews, posts, shares and comments.

Mourdoukoutas and Siomkos (2009), in their book on the seven principles of WOM and buzz marketing, present Principle 6: "Launch a WOM campaign". At a general level, it means that word of mouth should not be left to chance but planned: give people a reason to talk (something new or remarkable), identify those most likely to spread the message, give them something to share and support the conversation over time. Influencers can act as these spreaders. The subtitle, "Crossing the Tipping Point", refers to the moment when enough people talk about a product for the message to spread rapidly.

3. Advertising in video games

Video games reach a large and varied audience of all ages and genders, across consoles, PCs and mobile phones, and offer long, highly involving exposure. There are several forms of game advertising.

• Static in-game advertising: brand messages are built into the game during development and cannot be changed afterwards (for example a fixed billboard or a branded car). They last for the lifetime of the game but cannot be updated or targeted.
• Dynamic in-game advertising: ads are served into reserved spaces in the game through an internet connection, so they can be changed, scheduled, targeted by region or time, and measured. This works much like online display advertising inside the game world.
• Advergames: games created by or for a brand to promote it, with the brand often central to gameplay. They raise concerns when aimed at children, who find the commercial intent hard to recognise.
• Product placement in games: real branded products appear in the game, sometimes as usable items (licensed cars, sports gear, a drink that restores energy).
• Esports sponsorship: brands sponsor professional gaming teams, players, tournaments or streams, reaching audiences that are hard to reach with traditional media and building associations with gaming culture, similar to sports sponsorship.

Audience and effects

Typical outcome measures are brand recall and recognition, brand attitude and purchase intention. Effects depend on prominence (large, central placements are noticed more but are also more intrusive), congruence between brand and game (a sports drink in a sports game fits, a bank logo in a fantasy world does not) and player involvement. Players focus on the game task, so peripheral placements may be missed, while fitting ads can add realism. Ads that interrupt play are seen as intrusive and can cause irritation and negative brand attitudes.

4. Special topics in IMC: international advertising

When a company markets its brand in several countries, it must decide to what extent the advertising will be the same in every country. This is the classic debate between standardization and adaptation (also called localization).

In practice, most companies choose a middle way, summarised as "think global, act local" (sometimes called glocalization): a global brand strategy, positioning and core idea are developed centrally, while execution (language, models, settings, humour, media, offers) is adapted to local markets. The balance depends on the product category, the brand's positioning and the differences between the markets.

Cultural differences

Culture affects which appeals work, how symbols, colours and humour are interpreted, and what is acceptable or offensive.

Hofstede's cultural dimensions are a widely used tool for comparing national cultures. The model describes cultures on six dimensions:

1. Power distance: the extent to which less powerful members of society accept that power is distributed unequally (high power distance cultures may respond to status and authority cues).
2. Individualism versus collectivism: whether people see themselves mainly as individuals or as members of groups (individual benefits and self-expression versus family, group harmony and belonging).
3. Masculinity versus femininity: the emphasis on achievement, competition and success versus care, cooperation and quality of life.
4. Uncertainty avoidance: how comfortable people are with ambiguity and risk (high uncertainty avoidance may favour expert testimony, guarantees and detailed information).
5. Long-term versus short-term orientation: focus on future rewards, perseverance and saving versus tradition and present needs.
6. Indulgence versus restraint: the extent to which gratification of desires and enjoyment of life are accepted or restricted by social norms.

Hofstede's dimensions are country averages; they help advertisers form hypotheses about which appeals may fit, but they do not describe every individual, and cultures change over time.

Language and legal differences

• Language: slogans and brand names may translate badly or lose wordplay, so native speakers should check them (back-translation).
• Legal and regulatory differences: countries differ in rules on comparative advertising, advertising to children, alcohol, tobacco, gambling, pharmaceuticals and health claims, the use of foreign languages and the protection of personal data. Within the EU, many rules are harmonised, but national rules and self-regulatory codes still differ.

5. Ethics and regulation of advertising

Social and ethical criticism of advertising

Advertising is highly visible and often criticised. The main points of criticism are:

• Misleading or deceptive advertising: false claims, exaggeration beyond acceptable puffery, hidden costs, or omitting important information. Related issues are greenwashing (misleading environmental claims) and undisclosed advertising.
• Offensive or tasteless advertising: shock tactics, sexual appeals, or content that offends religious, cultural or social groups. What is offensive differs across cultures, which links back to international advertising.
• Advertising to children: children have limited ability to recognise commercial intent and to resist persuasion. Concerns include unhealthy food advertising, pressure on parents ("pester power"), advergames and influencer content aimed at children, and the use of children's data.
• Stereotyping and diversity representation: advertising may reinforce stereotypes about gender, age, ethnicity or body types, or exclude groups. The further reading by Campbell, Sands, McFerran and Mavrommatis (2025), "Diversity representation in advertising", addresses this theme. Inclusion must be sincere; tokenism can lead to criticism.
• Materialism: critics argue that advertising encourages people to value possessions and consumption over other goals, creates artificial needs and dissatisfaction, and promotes unrealistic lifestyles. Defenders argue that advertising reflects rather than creates values and provides information that consumers use.

Self-regulation versus government regulation

Advertising is controlled in two main ways: by the industry itself (self-regulation) and by law (government regulation). In most European countries, both systems work side by side.

Examples of national self-regulatory bodies are the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) in the United Kingdom and the Stichting Reclame Code in the Netherlands. At European level, the European Advertising Standards Alliance (EASA) brings such bodies together. Many codes build on the ICC advertising code: marketing communication should be legal, decent, honest and truthful.

EU regulation relevant to advertising

• Unfair Commercial Practices Directive (UCPD): the main EU law against misleading practices (false information, misleading omissions) and aggressive practices (harassment, coercion, undue influence). Its blacklist includes paid editorial content that does not make clear it was paid for, which is directly relevant to hidden and undisclosed influencer advertising.
• General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR): processing personal data needs a legal basis such as consent, which must be freely given, specific, informed, unambiguous and easy to withdraw. With the EU ePrivacy rules on cookies, tracking for targeted advertising generally requires consent, hence cookie banners.
• Digital Services Act (DSA): online platforms must show that content is an ad, on whose behalf it is shown, who paid and the main targeting parameters; very large platforms keep public ad repositories. It bans ads based on profiling with sensitive personal data and profiling-based ads to minors.
• Influencer disclosure rules: follow from consumer law such as the UCPD and audiovisual media rules, supplemented by national guidelines and self-regulatory codes. Commercial content must always be recognisable as such. Sector rules (alcohol, medicines, gambling, health claims) add to this and differ by country.

6. Ethics and responsibility in digital systems

Digital advertising relies on data, algorithms and automated decisions. This creates new ethical responsibilities for advertisers, platforms and agencies.

• Privacy and data use: personalisation requires combining data on behaviour, location and interests, which consumers may find useful but also intrusive (the personalisation and privacy trade-off from Week 9). Strycharz, Zhang and Segijn (2025) use the term dataveillance for ongoing data-based monitoring of consumers in interactive advertising and its unintended consequences. Responsible practice means data minimisation, transparency and respect for consent.
• Algorithmic bias: delivery algorithms learn from historical data and optimise for clicks, so exposure can become skewed by gender, age or ethnicity even without the advertiser intending it, which can be discriminatory for job or housing ads.
• Dark patterns: for example cookie banners with a prominent "accept all" and a hidden "reject", pre-ticked boxes, fake urgency or hard-to-cancel subscriptions. They conflict with freely given consent and can be misleading or aggressive practices.
• AI transparency: generative AI produces images, texts, virtual influencers and entire ads, raising questions about labelling AI-generated content, deepfakes and responsibility for errors. The EU AI Act introduces transparency obligations for certain AI-generated or manipulated content. The readings on disclosing AI involvement (Bui, 2025 and 2026) and AI-generated versus real models (Khodakarami et al., 2026) relate to this.

Mini case: Nordvik sports drink (fictional brand)

Nordvik is a fictional Scandinavian sports drink brand that wants to launch in Greece, Germany and Japan with a target group of 16 to 30 year olds. The marketing team proposes the following plan:

1. One mega influencer (a global football star) for the launch video, plus 60 micro and nano fitness influencers per country who post workout content with a discount code.
2. Dynamic in-game ads in a popular football game and sponsorship of a regional esports team.
3. One global campaign idea, "Refuel your drive", with the same video in all three countries, translated into the local language.
4. A retargeting campaign based on tracking website visitors, with a cookie banner that only shows an "accept" button and a small "settings" link.

Analysis. The influencer mix is sensible: the mega influencer gives reach, while micro and nano influencers bring homophily, credibility and engagement. Nordvik should check for fake followers, choose influencers with good fit, require clear disclosure and avoid influencers with mainly child audiences. Esports and in-game ads fit the target group and category (high congruence), but forced interruptions should be avoided. The single global video is standardization; following "think global, act local", Nordvik should keep the core idea but adapt execution: low context Germany may expect clear product arguments, high context Japan a more indirect, mood-based ad, and Hofstede's individualism versus collectivism can guide whether to show individual achievement or team spirit. Native speakers must test the slogan. Finally, the cookie banner is a dark pattern: without an equally visible refuse option, consent is not freely given under the GDPR.