Ch. 6: Training and Development

Learning outcomes

1. Describe basic legislation related to training in organizations.
2. Describe employee orientation.
3. Summarize how in-house training differs from external training.
4. Describe the steps in developing training programs.
5. Define the principles of employee development.
6. Explain how to assess training effectiveness.

6.1 Employee training and development

Studies show a direct, positive link between training and organizational performance (Garavan et al., 2020). Even a well-chosen new hire may have to learn the company's way of working. Without training, firms risk lower productivity, losing customers, weak relations between staff and managers and dissatisfaction, which leads to retention problems and high turnover, each with direct costs. In an ASTD study, 41% of staff at firms with weak training intended to quit within a year, compared with just 12% at firms with excellent training (Branham, 2005). Training is thus an investment that is key to the health of an organization.

Approaches to training: a well-designed orientation program (overview of policies and culture), specific in-house training on workplace issues or job-specific areas, a mentor or coach for new employees, continued in-house training, and external training (sending employees to events or bringing in external providers).

Training and development

Training and development is a key HR function. Training can also be described as an effort to improve or develop additional competencies in the job one currently holds to raise performance or productivity. It involves a change in attitude, skills or knowledge, resulting in improved behaviour. To be effective, training must be a planned activity, carried out after a thorough needs analysis and targeted at specific competencies.

Is there a difference between education and training? People often treat the two words as the same, yet education means gaining knowledge and information, mostly in a formal way, whereas training means mastering a skill or set of skills.

What training can and cannot do

Training is not a cure for every problem. Organizations sometimes turn to training even though a lack of skill is not the issue. When poor performance has causes unrelated to skill, training is the wrong response. When staff struggle to execute, skip tasks or fail to follow through, it may work better to give more objective feedback or to add or remove behavioural consequences. A useful test: if the employee could do the work "if his or her life depended on it", retraining will not help.

Employee orientation or onboarding

Objectives of orientation (Dessavre, 2023):

1. Reduce start-up costs: the employee gets up to speed on policies and procedures and can start working right away; paperwork is completed correctly so pay is on time.
2. Reduce anxiety: starting a new job in an unknown situation is stressful.
3. Reduce employee turnover: turnover is higher when employees don't feel valued or lack the tools to perform; orientation shows the organization values them.
4. Save time for the supervisor and coworkers: a better prepared employee needs less teaching.
5. Set expectations and attitudes: employees who know expectations and the organization's values from the start perform better and have a higher chance of a successful tenure.

Some companies also use orientation to introduce new employees to the staff.

In-house training

In-house training programs are learning activities created by the same organization that uses them. They normally form the second step in training and frequently continue over time. They may be tied to a job (specific software, a production machine) or deal with general HR subjects. Examples include ethics, sexual harassment, multicultural, communication, management, customer service, operating special equipment and basic skills training. (In the 1980s Wendy's became famous for training videos, for instance on how to pour drinks.)

External training

External training is any training not performed internally by the organization, such as sending an employee to a leadership seminar or paying tuition for a marketing course.

6.2 Onboarding steps for new employees

• Tour: a tour of the company and meeting some of the staff.
• Clear goals and expectations: help new employees understand the company, staff, policies, procedures and their job; managers can then help when goals are not met.
• Realistic goals: new employees can feel overwhelmed; keep the program simple so they retain the information; start with small goals and build to more complex ones.
• Create a schedule: show what they will do each day of orientation, send required reading beforehand and build in fun activities.
• Use digital documents: less paperwork on policies, safety, products and rules; documents are at their fingertips during training and daily work.
• Match with a coach or mentor: integrates learning in real situations; having someone to turn to reduces stress and errors and speeds up productivity.
• After onboarding: informal events, discussing and solving challenges, regularly reviewing progress.

6.3 Training program development framework

Training should be planned and developed in advance. The framework has six elements:

1. Needs assessment and learning objectives: specific, measurable objectives guide what must be learned and which areas need training.
2. Learning strategies: choose strategies suited to the audience so the training succeeds.
3. Delivery mode: web-based, mentoring, simulation, job shadowing; most programs combine several methods.
4. Budget: how much money is available.
5. Content: what must be taught and how to organize and sequence it.
6. Timelines: one-time, multiple segments or repeated annually (e.g. safety training); is there a deadline?

Needs assessment: three levels

Learning objectives and Bloom's taxonomy

Bloom's Taxonomy is a framework of action verbs for the skills and knowledge trainees should be "able to do" after training. The book speaks of six categories and lists Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Synthesis and Evaluation (the standard taxonomy also includes Analysis); each has subcategories from simple to complex. Trainers use it to design learning objectives (outcomes), deliver effective training, ensure a valid design, create assessments and align objectives with assessment (Armstrong, 2010).

Sample learning objectives: explain the company's sexual harassment policy with examples; show how to take a customer's order correctly; carry out customer needs analyses with company software; work with the new expense-tracking software; explain how chemicals must be handled safely; explain the different communication styles and the strategy for each; act ethically when dealing with complaints; delegate tasks to staff. Each one begins with an action verb that can be observed.

Learning principles

Guidelines for trainers to ensure effective learning:

Content development

Content is one of the most important and time-consuming parts of training. Learning objectives and content go hand in hand: objectives are the goals (what should someone know afterwards?) and make training more focused. Sample objectives: define and explain the handling of hazardous materials; use the team decision process model; state the definition of sexual harassment and recognize it; explain company policies and structure. After the objectives, HR develops the content, including the learning methods (e.g. discussion, role-playing).

Learning strategies (psychology of learning)

Learning styles are individual preferences for how people learn. The concept is popular and a whole industry is built on it, but the research evidence is very weak (Pashler et al., 2008). Psychological principles do matter, though: learning strategies are techniques proven to facilitate learning and improve retention.

• Retrieval practice (practice testing): low- or no-stakes quizzing that forces retrieval from memory.
• Distributed practice (spaced practice): spreading practice over time; much better retention than cramming. Spacing depends on task complexity (hours to months).
• Interleaved practice: switching between different topics instead of finishing one topic first. Harder while studying, but gives far greater retention on summative evaluations.

Budget

Training can be very expensive and needs a detailed budget. The Association for Talent Development (2017) reports an average of $1,273 per employee in direct learning expenditures; for a company like CAE (10,000 employees) that is about $13 million. Budgets include direct costs (travel, trainer or programmer fees, materials, catering) and indirect costs: employee time, since employees in training are not doing their job.

Timelines

Some training must be completed within a set period (often safety training). HR also estimates how long training takes (an hour, a day, a week) and whether it is repeated annually with refreshed content. Training time must fit work schedules with minimal disruption. It may not be cost-effective to run orientation for every new hire; running it once a month for all hires of that month allows better planning.

Communicating training opportunities

Email distribution lists (targeted at groups that need the training), supervisors and bulletin boards help ensure awareness and participation.

6.4 Methods of delivery

The method depends on the type of training (orientation may suit vestibule training, sexual harassment training may suit web-based delivery), the learning objectives, the audience and the budget. The two primary methods are on-the-job and off-the-job training.

1. On-the-job training: a supervisor or colleague teaches the employee their job while they are actually doing it. Steps:

1. The employee gets an overview of the training.
2. The supervisor or trainer demonstrates the skill.
3. The employee "mirrors" the demonstration.
4. Demonstration and mirroring are repeated until the employee is confident.
5. At each repetition the trainer gives feedback on progress.

Mentoring example: Mila, a Montreal AI research institute with 500 researchers, runs a nine-month mentoring program with clear criteria for mentors and mentees and mandatory monthly meetings.

2. Off-the-job training is essentially classroom training: physical, online or self-directed. Employees are usually paid to leave their jobs to participate. Techniques:

• Lectures: an expert delivers prepared oral lectures presenting information, background, theories and concepts. Avoid long monologues: break into lecturettes, ask questions and prompt discussion.
• Videos: combined with other methods they inspire, engage, help problem solving and show real examples.
• Simulations: models that mimic real life so participants can practise "doing" something without fear of mistakes or lost revenue (e.g. a simulation lab set up like the work station; emergency workers).
• Role plays: participants take a role in a scenario; used to change attitudes and develop communication skills (e.g. mock job interviews).
• Case studies: an in-depth, usually hypothetical but realistic story with characters; participants apply theory, analyze key concepts and find solutions.
• Self-study: learners manage their own learning at their own speed, with no supervision; often used for health and safety subjects like WHMIS (Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System).

6.5 Web-based learning

Web-based training relies on technology to support training; it is also known as e-learning or as internet-, computer- or technology-based learning. There are two kinds, plus a mix of both:

Hybrid learning blends synchronous and asynchronous training; some see it as the best of both.

Advantages of web-based training: on-demand, no travel, cost-efficient. Disadvantages: impersonal, limited bandwidth or technology. Suitable for safety, technical, quality and professional training; for soft-skills, job skills, managerial and team training, more personal methods may be better. Interactive platforms exist, e.g. Sun Microsystems' Social Learning eXchange (SLX) with real-time video, SharePoint to store materials, and Moodle, Blackboard and Angel to build modules (facilitated or self-paced). Virtual reality can transform training: simulated environments reduce costs and the risks of learning on the job (e.g. VR training of ER doctors for pediatric emergencies).

Web-based tools:

• Blogs: regularly updated webpage with commentary; interactive; owned by one person.
• Wikis: collaborative, easy to edit and build content; can be owned by several people.
• Webcasts: live-streamed presentation by a presenter to online participants, with little interaction.
• MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses): free (or affordable), flexible online courses open to everyone with no limit on attendance, e.g. LinkedIn Learning.

Further tools named: Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Google Classroom, Blackboard, Edmodo, Nearpod, Pear Deck and Canva.

6.6 Employee development

Companies strategically identify needed skills and knowledge and create a pool of employees who have or can develop them. Development is a natural extension of training; unlike training (short, specific KSAs) it unfolds over a longer period and targets more general competencies, tracking broad progress over many years.

Succession planning identifies key positions and develops action plans to place certain employees in them. Because developing leaders takes many years (about 20 years for the CEO of a large organization), it must be a constant priority for HR and senior management to keep the leadership pipeline healthy. Example: after Steve Jobs' death in 2011, Apple continued smoothly under Tim Cook, who had been carefully groomed along with others; his own successor is being groomed now.

Personal development helps employees manage their own careers through action planning with HR. It boosts motivation and retention; employers who neglect learning suffer low performance, engagement and retention. LinkedIn's 2018 Workforce Learning Report: 93% of employees would stay longer at a company that invests in their careers. Some organizations run corporate universities: in-house institutions with programs, courses and credits, e.g. the CGI Leadership Institute (CGI 101, CGI 201) and McDonald's Hamburger University (founded 1961, more than 275,000 graduates).

Steps for employee development plans

1. Needs analysis: a training needs analysis identifies gaps between company needs and employee skills.
2. Identify skills development goals: short- and long-term needs; a long-term road map of employees who meet company goals.
3. Identify training solutions: consider learners' styles, interests and current skills; divide into sessions and lessons; mix materials, methods and resources; choose the best delivery method (e.g. leadership versus technical training, short versus long).
4. Stakeholder support: without commitment of key stakeholders training may fail; when leadership buys in and champions it, employees are more eager to participate.
5. Check in with the employees: discuss new learning and goals, prioritize goals, discuss gaps, reinforce the need for training and explain its link to strategic goals.
6. Monitor progress: metrics and continual assessment keep training effective and aligned.
7. Culture of learning: a workplace that encourages individual, group and organizational learning, where knowledge is shared and learning is rewarded; customized to the company and inclusive (edX for Business, 2022).

High potential programs

High potential (hi-po) programs identify early and develop employees with the potential to take leadership positions (like spotting the most promising pee-wee hockey players and coaching them into NHL players). Two keys: (a) identification of talent and (b) development of talent. Early identification (often in the first years) is difficult and produces false positives (hi-pos who don't become superior executives), so companies cast a wide net. Hi-po careers are then carefully managed with developmental experiences such as international assignments.

6.7 Career development

Career counselling. HR creates a personalized career plan, recognizing that the employee may later work elsewhere. Moves may be promotions or lateral moves to other departments. Personal development may include high performance in assigned work, networking opportunities to raise the employee's profile, and mentors or coaches. HR and the employee together build a plan that includes:

1. Identify all career options based on interests, skills, values and beliefs (possibly a self-assessment test).
2. Prioritize the options.
3. Compare the options (best fit for the employee).
4. Make a choice.
5. Set SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound), agreed between HR and the employee.
6. Consider work-life balance, personality, fit within the company and other priorities of the employee.
7. Estimate the costs of the career plan.
8. Monitor the plan: regular check-ins, training to close skill gaps, feedback on progress.
9. Review the plan at least annually.

Sample career development plan (figure 6.7.1). An accounts payable clerk sets goals (develop management skills, learn accounting standards, be promoted to accounts payable manager) and proposes training (management training, advanced accounting software training, an online accounting degree, a tax certification course, communications training). The manager adds in-house courses (reading body language, writing development, running an effective meeting), identifies which training must be external, assigns the CFO as mentor, asks for a timeline and notes a budget of up to $1,000 per employee per year for external training. The employee drives the goals; the manager links them to in-house and external options within the organization.

6.8 Measuring training effectiveness

HR has to prove that training goals were reached and defend the budget by demonstrating a return on investment (ROI), meaning that training made the employee, and in the end the organization, more effective. The "tried and true" Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick, 2006) is known worldwide, evaluates both formal and informal training and is theoretically sound. It consists of four levels, to which the book adds ROI as a fifth.

Key terms (6.9)

Apprenticeships, asynchronous learning, blogs, Bloom's Taxonomy, career development plan, case study, development, development program, education, employee development, employee orientation, external training, high potential programs, in-house training, individual assessment, internships, job rotation, job shadowing, Kirkpatrick Model, learning objective, learning principles, lectures, mentoring, MOOC, occupational (task) assessment, on-the-job coaching, on-the-job training, organizational assessment, role play, self-study, simulations, succession planning, synchronous learning, training, web-based training, webcasts, wikis. All are explained above.

Summary (6.10)

Training improves KSAs for the current job and is directly related to organizational performance; without it companies face low productivity, lost customers, poor relationships, dissatisfaction and turnover. Development prepares employees for future responsibilities. Training only helps when a lack of skill is the problem, and it requires a needs analysis first. The development framework covers needs assessment (organizational, occupational, individual) and learning objectives (Bloom's Taxonomy), learning strategies, delivery mode, budget, content and timelines, applying learning principles (repetition, relevance, participation, feedback, transfer). Delivery can be on the job (coaching, shadowing, rotation, apprenticeships, internships, mentoring), off the job (lectures, videos, simulations, role plays, cases, self-study) or web-based (synchronous, asynchronous, hybrid). Employee development covers succession planning, personal development, development plans and hi-po programs; career development puts the employee's own goals first. Effectiveness is measured with Kirkpatrick's levels plus ROI.